Articles can be viewed  by clicking on the file named below

1. International Consulting Psychology:  Issues in Assessment and Intervention.  In R. Lowman, Ed. HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY

2.  Guidelines for Education and Training at the  Doctoral and Postdoctoral Levels in Consulting Psychology / Organizational Consuting Psychology.

3.  Consulting Competently in Multicultural contexts. CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY JOURNAL: PRACTICE AND RESEARCH.  

4.  Stress in the Workplace:  Assessing Stress  Judiciously. In C. Spielberger & B. Sarason, Eds., STRESS AND EMOTION, VOL. 17  

The Best of Consulting Psychology 1900 – 2000

Insider Perspectives

Ann M. O’Roark, Ph.D.

Consultant: Management and Leadership Development

St. Augustine, Florida

 With Appreciation for Research Assistance from Leon E. Maes

Alliant International University

San Diego, California

Abstract

            Who influenced 20^th century Consulting Psychology (CP) the most?   Lewin, Freud, Maslow, Levinson, Argyris, Kelly, Bennis, Schein, Skinner, Rogers, Caplan.  So say consulting psychologists themselves, according to a survey of leaders and general members of the Society of Consulting Psychology (SCP), Division 13 (APA13) of the American Psychological Association (APA).  Insider-perspectives at the turn of the 21^st century about significant CP contributions during CP’s first century embrace all forms of psychological consultation.  Generated by an SCP survey, The Best of the Century (BoC), juried, expert-opinion information is drawn from past presidents of SCP, then, compared and contrasted with information from randomly selected consulting psychologist-members of six APA divisions.   Lewin, Freud, Maslow, and Argyris were recognized as having the strongest influence on Consulting Psychology (CP). Lewin was further credited most often for exerting “the most influence on my practice.”  Kelly and Levinson join Lewin at the top of this individual influence list, where respondents also named their individual professors and mentors.  Organizational Diagnosis (Levinson, 1972) heads the significant literature list.  BoC opinions predicted that CP would need to face “identity” issues in the near future: What differentiates CP from other types of consultants? How can psychologists influence public perceptions of what psychologists do and can do?  SCP took a major step toward addressing CP identity issues with the APA Council’s 2005 passage of an APA-wide policy on education and training guidelines for doctoral and postdoctoral consulting psychology / organizational consulting psychology (APA 2005a). SCP is actively promoting incorporation of the language of non-healthcare service providers (non-HSP) in APA policies and public information, for example: licensure portability, evidence-based practices, and continuing education.

The Best of Consulting Psychology  1900 – 2000

Consulting psychologists, organizational, clinical, educational, research, and public interest consultants, rely on multiple sources of research and case study evidence, such as reports of effectiveness of practices, approaches, and strategies with particular client populations and cultural contexts.  Consulting psychologists provide guidance to the front-lines and need to continually be  “. . . evaluating the best available evidence, . . . to consider limitations of the evidence as well as its applicability to the specific case at hand.  . . [and to carefully]  distinguish between interventions that have not been studied in controlled trials and those that have shown to be ineffective” (2005b, Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice, Draft Policy Statement).

 Consultants who work in the scientist-practitioner tradition work much like the rower of a dinghy who has to move toward a landfall destination backwards.  They judge where they are headed by looking at the shoreline of where they have been. Relying on this acquired competence, consulting psychologists move forward relying on their knowledge and interpretation of what lies behind.  Probabilities for success in the future improve when past evidence of success is transformed into usable, actionable information. 

This assumption underlies The Best of the Century (BoC) survey, a five-part questionnaire developed to collect opinions from experienced practitioners about consulting practices and theories that worked for psychologists in the past.  Modeled on the widely used and respected critical incident technique methodology (Flanagan, 1954), the BoC asks consulting psychologists to report  (1)primary influences on the practice of CP during the 20^th century; (2) techniques, methods, or models that were used or adapted for use in their own consulting work; (3) most influential books and articles; (4) unfinished issues or agenda items in consulting psychology; and, (5)  major achievements, blunders and unresolved mysteries in psychology as a discipline.

Background

            In 2015 SCP/APA13 will complete a full century of professional collaborations on defining and advancing the practice of CP. The division’s efforts include identifying competency criteria for CP training and work, and consolidating a knowledge base specific to CP  (Rigby, 1992, 1996; Hellkamp, 1993; O’Roark, 1999).  Even with APA’s early identification of the need for descriptive research, when Randolph and Mitchell (1995) reviewed 25 years of journals, up to 1991, they only located 204 articles referencing the consulting function.  Slowness of progress and paucity of publications parallels the ups-and-downs of APA’s Division of Consulting Psychology, now named the Society of Consulting Psychology, and it’s antecedents.

WWI Precipitated A Need for Competency Criteria for Recognition as a Psychological Consultant.  APA  Division 13 traces it’s roots back to the 1915 Whipple act and the formation of the “Committee of Five” in 1917 when  APA first mandated that criteria be developed to identify which psychologists were qualified to provide consulting services. The committee became a section, and, eventually, the second division in APA after clinical psychology.  Efforts to carry out this assigned mandate generated such strong opinions and conflicting reactions within the APA membership that, ten years later, the consulting division was stricken from APA bylaws for 20 years. 

During that hiatus, consulting psychologists met first as the Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP), and following a merger with another independent association, as the American Association of Applied Psychologists (AAAP).  In 1946, after WWII, when APA reorganized, AAAP became the Division of Consulting Psychology, APA13.  Since then, progress on the 1915 mandate moved in fresh directions, gathering momentum most noticeably in the last two decades since the 1990 introduction of strategic planning for division goals (Bradt, 1990).

Development of CP Literature. Davis and Froehle (1996) prepared a list of significant CP publications by gathering opinions from a panel of experts comprised of experienced practitioners.  Their study demonstrates feasibility and salience for the juried research technique, which is the method used for the study presented in this article.  Wilson and Lubin (1997) published the first annotated bibliography of research in organizational change consultation.  Both the Wilson and Lubin bibliography and the Davis and Froehle jury-test-of-significance study came about directly from strategic planning objectives established by the 1990 SCP Board.

   In addition, BoC extends a series of survey studies undertaken by SCP presidents (Rigby, 1973; Bradt, 1990;  Robinson-Kurpius, Fuqua, Gibson, Kurpius, Froehle, 1995; Leonard, 1999; Blanton, 2000;  and, O’Roark, reported here) that enabled the division to achieve its 20^th century quest to solidify a foundation for CP.  These surveys accumulated facts about consulting practitioners and practices that prepared the way for successful articulation of principles, competencies, and guidelines for the education and training of psychologists who provide consulting services (APA, 2005a). 

Diverse Opinions.  BoC narrative comments, summarized in the following sections, include wide-ranging references to multiple sources of research evidence, a variety of research designs and methodologies, evidence of effectiveness of CP practices, approaches and strategies with particular consulting problems, client populations, and cultural contexts.  Influences on practices are reported that came from scientific laboratory and field setting evidence-bases. For example, narrative references are made to Freud and Lewin, to Pascal and Islam, to Leary and LDS cults, to Hull’s mathematical theory, to IQ testing, to Psychology Today,  and to the “Boulder Model” for scientist-practitioner professionalism.

Personal Mentoring: The Indelible Impact. A third of the respondents said their own practices were mostly influenced by a psychologist who did not make headlines, either for achievement awards or for rocking-the-boat.  Many who had greatest impact on their consulting practice were senior colleagues who took personal interest in their education and professional progress.  The influence of personal mentoring was rated as more meaningful and enduring than reading articles or books.   BoC narratives are anecdotal indicators that SCP consulting specialists continue a life-long passion for psychology, a thirst for unsolved puzzles and unfinished business, and remain ever ready for the next consulting challenge.

Survey Procedures and Constituencies

Surveys were mailed to the 23 living Past-Presidents[1] of APA13, to comprise an expert-panel, and to 300 general members of APA13.  The total of 300 general members came from six subsets of fifty members who were identified by random selection from lists in the 1999 APA membership directory showing them to be members of division 13 and one of the selected subset pools. Five subset pools represented SCP members who also were members of other APA divisions with the largest overlaping memberships: industrial/organizational (APA14 with 216 total overlap pool of members); independent practice (APA42 with total 208 overlap); clinical (APA12 with 207 membership overlap); psychotherapy (APA29 with 178 overlap); and, counseling (APA17 with 120 overlap pool).  A sixth subset consisted of APA13 members affiliated only with SCP.

SCP Survey Return Rate Stronger than A Comparable survey Conducted by the Anerican Psychological Society (APS). The response rate from the jury panel was 70%, an unusually high return.  The response rate from the randomly selected representatives of APA13’s general membership constituencies was 8%, an unusually low return.  A parallel survey drawn from a more generic population of psychologists was conducted by the American Psychological Society (APS) to rank the top 99 psychologists of the 20^th century (Gee, 2002).  Using data from their 5.6 percent return, Steven Haggbloom applied multivariate analysis of six variables to operationalize eminence. Data analysis indicated that the top three psychologists during the last century were Skinner, Piaget, and Freud.  In contrast, SCP data analysis of BoC’s 12% return rate  is handled as informal, field-information with professional, anecdotal-evidence value.  Nevertheless, SCP practitioners’ identify Skinner and Freud with major influence on psychological consultation, but also point out that some consider that influence as strongly positive while others evaluate it to have been a negative influence.

The following excerpt from The Best of the Century illustrates the opinion response

format. [2]

Part I.  We are interested in what you consider to be the most important influences of the last century on consulting psychology. Please list here theories or concepts that you feel have had the greatest influence on the practice of consulting psychology during the century.

                                                                                                5 is highly influential        4 is very influential       3 moderate influence

2 not  very influential             1 not influential at all

            The survey was prepared by the senior author with input from past division presidents and presidential candidates.  Mailings went to the jury panel with invitations to be guests of honor at the Division reception during the 2000 APA convention.  Follow up mailings and random telephone calls were provided by the division president and a division affiliate graduate student, co-authors of this report.  Pooled responses (juried = 70%; general = 8%) yeilded a total of 39 usable surveys.

Results: Important for Consulting Psychology

Kurt Lewin and Sigmund Freud received the most total nominations from the expert panel for influencing 20^th century consulting psychology.  Lewin, the social-psychologist originator of field theory and action research methods, is named in five of the seven subsets.  Freud, originator of one of the earliest personality development theories and of psychoanalytic methods, is named by the expert panel and three of the six subsets.  Looking at the particular subsets leads to a question: Does this most influential “odd couple” outcome reflect differences in education, training, and practice of consultants in particular types of consulting? 

Lewin who stressed social pressures and dynamics was not listed by respondents who are members of the division of independent practice (42) or clinical psychology (12).   Freud who focused on individual development and inhibitors is considered influential by the past presidents, and members of independent practice (42), clinical (12), and psychotherapy (29).  Freud was conspicuously absent from nominations made by respondents who were members of Division 13 only, and  members of  I/O (14), and counseling (17).

The polarizing of the Lewin - Freud  responses is intuitively believable, being  consistent with likely differences in academic coursework, training background, and practice literature.  Literature recommendations from the Lewin constituencies [13 only, 14, 17] included references to Bass, Bray, Dunnette, Holland, and Murray.  In contrast,  Maslow, Cattell, Moos, and Spielberger are referenced by the past presidents, clinical [12], and psychotherapy [29], the Freud constituencies. 

Results: Most Influence on My Practice

Fewer nominations were offered for “most influence on my practice” but included 90 different names as opposed to 65 different nominees for “most influence on consulting psychology.”  Mixed in with names of widely known psychologists are lesser known persons and recent luminaries as well as several consulting firms (Center for Creative Leadership, Personnel Decisions International, Rorher-Hibler-Reploge International).  Greatest impact on the individual consultant’s practice is associated with up-close-and-memorable experience or contact.   Early pioneers in CP have the greatest number of repeat nominations. Lewin, Kelly, Levinson, and Rogers were named most frequently.  Ellis, McClelland, Perls, and RHR International. received the second most nominations.

Personal Mentors and Professional Titans. Randomly selected participants gave higher ratings on the influence and enduring scales to those who made the “most impact on my practice” than they did to individuals they nominated as having the most impact on consulting psychology.  The expert panel of past presidents, most of whom remain active in APA, gave higher influence and enduring ratings to those they said influenced CP and the discipline than they did to those who influenced their own practice. 

Results: Important Writings

Harry Levinson’s Organization Diagnosis receives honors for being named most often as the most influential writing.   Writings, on the whole, are not rated as high for influence and enduring characteristics as were those who influenced “consulting psychology” or “my practice.”  A total of 68 authors and 93 titles are named in survey responses.  Recommended titles reflect a prominence of organizational consulting:  organizational titles = 35; therapy = 10 ; testing and assessment = 7; learning and human development = 5. 

Carl Rogers is cited second most frequently, with most nominations for his book, Freedom to Learn (1969).  Edgar Schein received the third most citations.  References were primarily to two of his books, Organization Culture and Leadership (1985 & 1992, 2^nd edition) and Process Consultation (1969).

Four books identified as important in consulting psychology by Davis and Froehle (1996) were also top rated in the BoC survey: Organizational Diagnosis (Levinson, 1972); Process Consultation (Schein, 1969); Intervention Theory and Methods (Argyris, 1970); and, The Theory and Practice of Mental Health Consultation (Caplan, 1970).  A total of nine books were referenced in both the 1996 literature analysis and the BoC  influence survey.  The five additional references are: Block (1981); Caplan & Caplan (1993); Lippitt & Lippitt (1978); Senge (1990); and Tobias (1990).

DeWayne Kurpius prepared a consulting psychology reading-list for a survey conducted while he was Education and Training chair for the division.  Kurpius’ reading-list authors not nominated in the millennium survey are:  Alpert, J. L., 1982; Bell, C.R. & Nadler, L., 1985; Bergan, J.R., 1977; Beer, M. 1980; Brown, D., Psyzwansky, W.B., & Shulte, A.C., 1991; Cooper, S. & Hodges, W. , 1983; Doughtery, A.M., 1990; French, W.L. & Bell, C.H., 1984; Golembrewski, R.T., 1992; Lawler, 1980; Mendel, W.M. & Solomon, P., 1968; Nevis, E., 1987; O’Neill, P. & Trickett, E.J., 1982; and, Wynne, L., McDaniel, S., & Weber, T., 1986.

Consulting psychology’s distinct history and body of literature is the result of 20^th century work by a changing cadre of pioneers and leaders interested in defining the practice of consulting psychology.  Initiated by specialists in mental health, individual consultation, process consulting methods, and educational systems (Backer, 1982a, 1982b, 1992; Chin, 1967; Chin & Benne, 1969), momentum due to increaded interest in corporate consulting stimulated an end of the century increase in publications and training programs.   Nominations for influential writings span the century -- 1910s (n=4); 1920s (n=0); 1930s (n=1); 1940s (n=1); 1950s (n=10); 1960s (n=19); 1970s (n=30); 1980s (n=15); 1990s (n=24), yet, the greatest cluster of nominated writings came out in the 1970s.  Publications on consulting psychology during the first decade of the 21^st century are likely to outnumber the total of influential publications of Cp’s first century .

Results.  Future Issues 

            Attention to Client, Practice, Professional Needs.  BoC asked about important CP issues on the horizon.  The three target areas of interest were [1] client issues that will need to be addressed, [2] problems in the practice of CP, and [3] issues in psychology-as-a-whole that will require response from CP.  Importance of future issues was emphasized by respondents : On a scale where 5 is highest, the average was 4.05 influence; 4.58 enduring. 

The greatest number of unfinished-business items submitted are related to client issues, including personnel topics and service delivery mechanics.  Considered almost equally important are keeping pace with technology and solidifying-and-extending research.

            Personnel topics.     Examples client-issue personnel comments are:  Personnel selection; aging workforce and population; existential crisis of baby boomers; work stress and coping; finding meaning in work; learned optimism and productivity; increasing employee and company productivity; consulting to the “whole” person; gender issues, spiritual-religious aspects of human life; balancing family and work; executive coaching; team organization.

            Service Delivery.  The topic with the second most narrative comments comprises problems and issues in service delivery:  establishing effective working relationships with other specialty consultants, i.e., when collaborating in facilitating complex system change; freedom and manipulation; clarification of values that set the consultant’s priorities; training and credentialing; rivalry between clinical and organizational psychologists/ between academics and practitioners; health care systems; avoiding cookie cutter approaches; moving too fast for client’s needs; who pays and how much; and “preservation of the species.”

            Technology.  Technology was considered a major factor in the future of CP: equipment knowledge and skills; information age and culture change; telecommunications; computer based theory; internet testing; internet and communications; and replacement of workers by technology.

            Research.  Concern about research stands almost equal to technology: sound scientific underpinnings; research demonstrating what consulting models, techniques and information are effective; intervention success in changing environments; how to measure and integrate individual, group, and organizational dynamics; family business counseling and consulting; influence on the family of home-based business; international organizational issues; models which are supportive of collaboration and leadership without authority; moral approaches vs. immoral behavior; and “do clients feel better and not get improved?”.

            Three direct excerpts summarize recommendations for the 21^st century CP agenda:  What differentiates psychologists from other types of consultants?  How can we influence public perceptions of what psychologists do? [currently, too narrow identity]. What does psychology offer a client and what are psychological services worth? 

Results: Achievement, Blunder, Mystery

The firmest common ground for the several streams of consulting psychologists turned out to be their identification of the greatest unsolved mysteries in psychology: the nature-nurture controversies and the mind-body connections.  Especially reassuring is finding that achievements are scored as having stronger influence and being more enduring than the blunders.  

Greatest achievements.  Personality theories and interventions methods garnered the lion’s share of nominations.  Skinner’s name was mentioned most often, twice as often as  Sigmund Freud, yet both were given strong positive and strong negative impact evaluations.  Other specified nominations in personality theory were Allport, Rogers, Cattell, Eysenck, Guilford, and Costa & McCrae.  Psychoanalytic, non-directive, and “talking” therapies were recognized as achievements in the interventions category.

Greatest blunders.  Consulting psychology “identity” issues were linked to blunders.  Much of this emerges in relation to scattered venues for the teaching of psychology.  Some respondents feel that the Boulder Model for the scientist-practitioner was compromised by the introduction of the Psy.D. degree, by allowing business schools to take over “systems theory” and organization behavior instruction, and by letting community psychology “slip away.”

The following are excerpts from BoC narrative responses: “failure to build solidarity in the profession”; authorizing free-standing professional schools; not instituting national licensing/certification standards; and, emphasis on practical training at the expense of training in science, sampling, and measurement. 

“Overestimating, overselling, overemphasizing, and overdoing of behaviorism” received resounding endorsement as the blunder of the century.  The expert panel jury includes psychoanalysis and Freud in the major blunder category.  Other named blunders include: Hull’s mathematical model, O’Leary and the LSD cult, the meta analysis study of sexual offenders, and APA’s purchase of Psychology Today.  Several respondents listed service “regulatory” blunders:  HMOs, health care financing (psychotherapy); siding with the medical model for insurance companies, and rejecting managed care. This later is especially noted by independent practice respondents.  The counseling overlap group expressed concern about the “belief in the theory of small number experiments” and overtesting adults and children. 

Greatest mysteries.  The leading cluster of unresolved mysteries in the field of psychology, nature-nurture and mind-body, is punctuated by a direct question: “Do mind and will exist?”  Other perplexities are unrelated but considered personally significant: partnering with other professions; the debate over developing I/O consulting licensure requirements; the need to better understand expressions of dominance, aggression, violence and hatred; and, causes of IQ differences between groups.

Implications and Conclusions

In ratings given by the jury and the subset groups, nominations for 20^th century best practices  and for achievements received the strongest influence and enduring ratings.  Lowest ratings were awarded to writings and blunders.  Implications for best-practices in CP include: mentoring other consulting psychologists; working for clarity and solidarity of CP identity; independent thinking; openness to innovation; valuing achievements; and taking on difficult professional challenges. 

Professional Challenges.   BoC responses reflect a continuing diversity of professional focus and interests among consulting psychologists, supporting earlier  “evidence of a perennial, multifaceted ‘ecumenism’ ” in CP.(Bieliauskas, 1983).  The 21^st century call to address CP  “identity” issues is reframed around the consolidation of the CP knowledge base, the need for individuation of consulting specializations, and the refinement of intervention and evaluation practices, suggesting that CP is moving toward a mature professional stage. 

Basic definitional questions, posed as early as 1915 (Rigby, 1992; O’Roark, 1999) have been answered numerous times, especially during the last five decades of the century  (Fernberger, 1932;  Fryer & Henry, 1950; Schein, 1969; Caplan, 1970; Glasser, 1973; Steele, 1975; Backer 1982; Backer, Barclay, Blanton, Golembiewski, Kurpius, Levinson, Perloff, Leonard (Ed.), 1992;  Hellkamp, 1993). The call now is for companion principles and guidelines to place beside the 2005 APA policy, Guidelines for education and training at the doctoral and post-doctoral level in consulting psychology/organizational (APA, 2005).  This policy, initially drafted by SCP in 1997-1999, was revised to incorporate suggestions by APA governance groups by SCP members in 2004.  It is a prototype template for articulating guidelines and principles for consulting in other consulting practice areas, such as: counseling, military, schools, forensic, government systems, women’s issues, multicultural issues, HIV, and disaster/violence trauma recovery.

            Does the BoC provide usable, actionable information?  Two possibilities stand out: 1. Structuring SCP/APA13 to be a vehicle for serving needs of the multiple overlapping interest groups; and, 2. Selecting future-agenda topics for in-depth attention in special issues or CPJ articles, graduate student dissertation studies, APA convention program topics. 

The Society’s leadership group recently initiated internal “interest groups.”  In addition to interest that targets client populations [family businesses, international consulting], internal cohort groups might represent division membership-overlaps within the APA constellation.  Internal “shared Interest groups” (SIGs) are poised to offer mentoring for entry-level and early-career consulting psychologists, one of the most valued influences of the 20^th century. Overlap SIG cohorts are incubators for developing papers and symposia for APA conventions, for workshops at midwinter consulting psychology conferences, as well as for submissions to  publications such as CPJ and CP. 

 BoC opinions are springboards for thinking outside the box of “coaching,” such as, theoretical conundrums and advancing applications.  Other spin-off possibilities include: (1) a debate about whether Freud and Skinner’s work is better considered under achievements or blunders, and how they influenced CP; (2) a comparison and contrast of Lewin and Freud’s influence on CP; (3) examination of consulting to-and-by the aging population; and, (4) developing consulting interventions to alleviate effects of home based businesses on families.

 Evidence from the past sounds a clear call for emphasis on CP continuing education programs.  What’s missing is a curriculum of CE courses and workshops, conceptually coordinated and regularly available to practitioners. 

            BoC data are straws in the wind, pointing out where to direct attention and effort in the days ahead.  The value of working from straws-in-the-wind was illustrated by Isabelle Myers Briggs, one of only two women to receive several nominations for influence on CP.  She developed Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI™) questions as straws in the wind to point to the direction of individual preferences for interacting with others.  The goal was to develop practical applications of Jung’s theory of personality differences (Myers & McCaulley, 1986 / 1989), and the result was the foundation of one of the 20^th century’s largest international networks of consulting services. 

References

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APA (2005). Guideliness for education and training at the doctoral and post-doctoral level in consulting psychology (CP) /organizational consulting psychology (OCP).

Argyris, C. (1970). Intervention theory and method. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 

Backer, T.E. (1982a).  Psychological consultation.  In J.R. McNamara & A.G. Barclay (Eds.), Critical issues in professional psychology. (pp. 227-269). New York: Praeger.

Backer, T.E. (1982b).  Training organizational consultants:  Some guidelines and a suggested curriculum.  Consulting Psychology Bulletin, 34(1), 22‑28.

Backer, T.E. (1992). Gerald Caplan's approaches and consultation with public mental health organizations in the 1990's. Consulting Psychology Journal, 44(2), 11-17.

Beer, M. (1980). Organization change and development: A system view. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Bell, C.R. & Nadler, L. (1985 ). Clients and consultants. Houston, TX: Gulf.

Blanton, J. S. (2000). Why consultants don’t apply psychological research.   Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 52 (4), 235-247.

Block, Peter. (1981/1999). Flawless consulting: a guide to getting your expertise used. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bradt, K. H. (1990). Steps to revitalize the division underway. Consulting Psychology Bulletin, Spring 1990, pp. 50-52..

Brown, D., Psyzwansky, W.B., & Shulte, A.C. (1991). Psychological consultation. Needham

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Chin, R. & Benne, K.D. (1969).  General strategies for effecting changes in human systems. In  W.G.

Bennis, K. D. Benne, and R. Chin (Eds.), The planning of change, 2^nd edition, pp. 32-57. New

York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston.

Consulting Psychology Journal (CPJ).  Previously titled: The Consulting Psychology Bulletin and  Division 13 Newsletter.  Issues cited: V.32, 35, & 42.

Cooper, S. & Hodges, W. (Eds.). (1983). The mental health consultation field. NY: Human Sciences Press.

Davis, J.B. & Froehle, T.C. (1996). Using jurors to determine significance and usefulness of selected books in consultation theory, research, and practice.  Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Vol.48, No.1, 27-38.

Doughtery, A.M. (1990). Consultation Practice and perspectives. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole.

Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-358.

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Hellkamp, D. T. (1993). History of the division of consulting psychology: 1972-1992. Consulting Psychology Journal, 45 (1) 1-8.

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Lawler, E.E. (1980). Organizational assessment. NY: Wiley

Leonard, H. S. (1999). Becoming a consultant: The real stories. Consulting Psychology Journal, 51,1, 3-13.

Levinson, H. (1972). Organizational diagnosis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. University of Chicago Press.

Lippitt, G. & Lippitt, R. (1978/ 1986). The consulting process in action (2nd ed). Amsterdam: Pfeiffer & Co.

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Additional Readings

Argyris, C. & Schon, DA. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Backer, T.E., & Glaser, E.M. (1981).  Developing a professional practice as a consulting psychologist.  Los Angeles:  Consultation Research Program.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: Prentice Hall.

Beck, AT, Rush, AJ, Shaw, BF, & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.

Bennis, W.G. , Benne, K. D., & Chin, R.  (1961/69) The planning of change, 2^nd edition.  New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston.

Bennis,W.G. & Schein E.H.  (1966). Leadership and motivation: Essays of Douglas McGregor. London: MIT Press.

Bergan, J.R. (1977). Behavioral consultation. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Bielauskis, V.J. (1983). Candidate for president-elect. Consulting Psychology Bulletin, 3(3 3(3), p.3.

Bion, W. R. (1961). Experiences in Groups. London: Tavistock.

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Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1: Attachment). New York: Basic Books.

Bray, D. W. (1976). The assessment center method. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and Development Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Cattell, R.B. “ ‘dimensions of personality’ theory- nomination is for his concept, not any particular book/article.’ E.g., (1949);16 personality factor questionnaire;  (1950) Personality: A systematic, theoretical, and factual study; (1966, 1984) Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology; and,(1978) Comprehensive personality and learning theory.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Harper, R.A. (1992).  Division 13’s history: Impressions from within. Consulting Psychology Journal, 44 (2) 9-11.

Hunter, J. F., & Schmidt, F. L. (1982-1996).  Nominated for their “human performance writings.”  E.g.,  Hunter, J. F., & Schmidt, F. L. (1982a). Fitting people to jobs: Implications of personnel selection for national productivity. In E. A. Fleishman & M.D. Dunnette (Eds.), Human performance and productivity Volume I: Human capability assessment (pp. 233-284). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum;  Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F L. (1982b). Quantifying the effects of psychological interventions on employee job performance and work force productivity. American Psychologist, 38, 473-478; Hunter, J. F., & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; Hunter, J. F., & Schmidt, F L. (l996). Intelligence and job performance: Economic and social implications. Psychology, Public Policy. and Law, 2, 447-472;  Hunter, J. F., Schmidt, F. L., & Coggin, T D. ( 1988). Problems and pitfalls in using capital budgeting and financial accounting techniques in assessing the utility of personnel programs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 522-528; Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Jackson, Ci. B. (l982). Meta-analysis: Cumulating reseanch findings across studies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Judiesch, M. K. (l990).

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Kurpius, D.J. (1978). Consultation theory and process: An integrated  model.  Personnel and Guidance Journal, February 1978, pp. 335-339.

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Levinson, H. (1973). The great jackass fallacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.

Levinson, H. “all writings.” E.g., (1994). Why the behemoths fell: Psychological roots of corporate failure. American Psychologist, 49, 428-436; (1981)Executive.

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Schneider, W.E. (1994). The reengineering alternative: A plan for making your current culture work.  New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

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